Monday, 30 April 2012
rkcl notes in english
Windows Basic
What is Operating System
An operating system is the program that manages all the
other programs in a computer after being initially loaded into the computer by
a boot program. It is the most basic program in a computer.
The other programs are called applications or application
programs. The application programs make use of the operating system by making
requests for services through a defined application program interface (API).
The functions of an operating system can be classified into
three groups:
1) Managing resources
2) Providing user interface
3) Running applications
The operating system’s job is to control the computer at the
most fundamental level. It manages memory, controls access to peripheral
devices and serves as a translator between the user and the hardware, providing
the means for the user and application programs to tell the hardware what to
do.
Users interact with application programs and computer
hardware through a “user interface”. Many older operating systems use a
character-based interface in which users communicate with the operating system
through written commands. Almost all newer operating systems use a “graphical
user interface (GUI)”.
Operating systems load and run applications such as word
processors and spreadsheets. Most operating systems support “multitasking”
which is the ability to switch between different applications stored in memory.
Starting or restarting a computer is called “booting” the
system. There are two ways to boot a computer, a warm boot and a cold boot. A
“warm boot” occurs when the computer is already on and you restart it without
turning off the power. For example, in Windows Vista, you can restart a running
computer by pressing the “Start” button, clicking on the arrow at the bottom
right and selecting “Restart”. Starting a computer that has been turned off is
called a “cold boot”.
Users can interact directly with the operating system
through a user interface such as a command language or a graphical user
interface (GUI). Most GUIs provide a place called the “desktop”, which allows
access to computer resources. Examples of operating systems are: Windows,
Novell Netware, Mac OS, UNIX and Linux.
Operating systems have several features in common with
application programs, such as the following ones.
Icons: These are graphic representations for a program or
function.
Pointer: This is controlled by a mouse and changes shape
depending on its current function. For example, when shaped like an arrow, the
pointer can be use to select items such as an icon.
Windows: These are rectangular areas for displaying
information and running programs.
Menus: These provide a list of options or commands.
Dialog Boxes: These are window that provide information or
request input.
Help: Online assistance is provided for different operations
and procedures.
Most operating systems store data and programs in a system
of files and folders. Unlike the traditional filing cabinet, computer files and
folders are stored on a secondary storage device such as your hard disk.”Files”
are used to store data and programs. Related files are stored within a “folder”.
A folder may also contain other folders.
There are various operating systems, but they all can be
categorized under three basic heads: embedded, network and stand-alone.
“Embedded operating systems” are used for handheld computers
and smaller devices like PDAs. The operating system programs are stored on
read-only memory (ROM) chips and embedded in the device. Popular embedded
operating systems include Windows CE and Windows XP Embedded.
“Network operating systems” are used to control and
coordinate computers that are linked together. Network operating systems are
generally located on one of the hard disks of the connected computers. This
computer is called the “network server” and it coordinates communication
between the other computers. Popular network operating systems include Netware,
Windows NT Server, Windows XP Server and UNIX.
“Stand-alone operating systems” also called “desktop
operating systems”, control a single desktop or notebook computer. These
operating systems are located on the computer’s hard disk. Popular desktop
operating systems include Windows, Mac OS and some versions of UNIX.
Often desktop computers and notebooks are part of a network.
In such cases, the desktop operating system works with the network’s NOS to
share and coordinate resources. Here, the desktop operating system is referred
to as the “client operating system”.
The operating system is often referred to as the “software
environment” or “platform”. Almost all application programs are designed to run
with a specific platform. For example, the standard version of AppleWorks is
designed to run with the Mac OS environment.
Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows is a range of closed source commercial
operating environments for personal computers and servers. The range was first
introduced by Microsoft in 1985 and eventually has come to dominate the world
personal computer market.
Microsoft’s Windows is the most popular microcomputer
operating system with over 90 percent of the market. Because of this, a large
number of application programs are developed to run under Windows. Windows
comes in a variety of versions and is designed to run with Intel and
Intel-compatible microprocessors such as the Pentium IV.
You can see details of the various Microsoft desktop
operating systems in the displayed figure.
The most widely used versions of Windows, i.e. Windows XP,
was introduced in 2001. The next major version, Windows Vista, which is the
latest one, was released in 2007.
Some of the useful features of Windows are as follows:
You can see multiple programs running simultaneously on
different areas of your screen.
The Windows interface is based on “Graphical User Interface”
or GUI, which means that the interface uses graphics or pictures to help the
user navigate and access programs. Right-clicking the mouse on any object
displays a “context” menu which you can use to execute many useful commands
easily.
You can use shortcuts to open a program without having to
find the program on your hard disk.
Help is always near. Pressing the “F1” key in most
situations either displays detailed instructions or brief descriptions of the
controls. The help has a search feature, too, allowing you to find desired
information by typing in a keyword.
Clipboard: The “Clipboard” is a temporary storage area for
information that you have copied or moved from one place and plan to use
somewhere else. For example, you might want to copy a section of text from a
website, and then paste that text into an e mail message. The Clipboard is
available in most Windows programs.
Other Operating System
“Mac OS” is the trademarked name for a series of graphical
user interface-based operating systems developed by Apple Inc. for their
Macintosh line of computer systems. The Macintosh user experience is credited
with popularizing the graphical user interface. It is a powerful, easy-to-use
operating system that is popular with professional graphic designers, desktop
publishers and many home users.
One of the latest versions of the Macintosh operating system
is “Mac OS X”, also known as “Tiger”. It provides powerful features such as
“Spotlight” and “Dashboard Widgets”. Spotlight is an advanced search tool that
can rapidly locate files, folders, e-mail messages, addresses and much more.
Dashboard Widgets are specialized programs that constantly update and display information.
The next version of Mac OS, “Leopard” includes “Boot Camp”
which allows appropriately equipped Apple computers to use both Mac OS and
Windows XP.
UNIX and Linux: UNIX is a powerful multitasking operating
system that was developed in 1969. It was originally designed to run on
minicomputers in network environments. Now, it is also used by powerful
microcomputers and Web servers.
Linux is a popular version of UNIX. It was initially created
as a hobby in 1991 by a graduate student, Linus Torvalds, at the University of
Helsinki in Finland. He allowed free distribution of the operating system code
and encouraged others to modify and further develop the code.
CHANGE WINDOWS XP2 TO WINDOWS XP 3
CHANGE WINDOWS XP2 TO WINDOWS XP 3
YOUR THIS STEP IN WINDOWS REGISTERY
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHIN>>>>SYSTEM>>>cONTROL>>>WINDOWS>>>CSDVERSION>>>("CHANGE VALUE TO 200 TO 300")
YOUR THIS STEP IN WINDOWS REGISTERY
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHIN>>>>SYSTEM>>>cONTROL>>>WINDOWS>>>CSDVERSION>>>("CHANGE VALUE TO 200 TO 300")
Sql coommand step by step
S.No.
|
SQL
Statement
|
Syntax
|
1.
|
AND
/ OR
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE condition AND|OR condition |
2.
|
ALTER
TABLE
|
ALTER
TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
Or
ALTER
TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name |
3.
|
AS
(alias)
|
SELECT
column_name AS column_alias
FROM table_name
Or
SELECT
column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias |
4.
|
BETWEEN
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2 |
5.
|
CREATE
DATABASE
|
CREATE
DATABASE database_name
|
6.
|
CREATE
TABLE
|
CREATE
TABLE table_name
( column_name1 data_type, column_name2 data_type, column_name2 data_type, ... ) |
7.
|
CREATE
INDEX
|
CREATE
INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
Or
CREATE
UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name) |
8.
|
CREATE
VIEW
|
CREATE
VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition |
9.
|
DELETE
|
DELETE
FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value
Or
DELETE
FROM table_name
(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DELETE
* FROM table_name
(Note: Deletes the entire table!!) |
10.
|
DROP
DATABASE
|
DROP
DATABASE database_name
|
11.
|
DROP
INDEX
|
DROP
INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server)
DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS Access) DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle) ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL) |
12.
|
DROP
TABLE
|
DROP
TABLE table_name
|
13.
|
GROUP
BY
|
SELECT
column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name |
14.
|
HAVING
|
SELECT
column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value GROUP BY column_name HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value |
15.
|
IN
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,..) |
16.
|
INSERT
INTO
|
INSERT
INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
Or
INSERT
INTO table_name
(column1, column2, column3,...) VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....) |
17.
|
INNER
JOIN
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name1 INNER JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name |
18.
|
LEFT
JOIN
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name1 LEFT JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name |
19.
|
RIGHT
JOIN
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name1 RIGHT JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name |
20.
|
FULL
JOIN
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name1 FULL JOIN table_name2 ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name |
21.
|
LIKE
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE column_name LIKE pattern |
22.
|
ORDER
BY
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC] |
23.
|
SELECT
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name |
24.
|
SELECT
*
|
SELECT
*
FROM table_name |
25.
|
SELECT
DISTINCT
|
SELECT
DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name |
26.
|
SELECT
INTO
|
SELECT
*
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase] FROM old_table_name
Or
SELECT
column_name(s)
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase] FROM old_table_name |
27.
|
SELECT
TOP
|
SELECT
TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name |
28.
|
TRUNCATE
TABLE
|
TRUNCATE
TABLE table_name
|
29.
|
UNION
|
SELECT
column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2 |
30.
|
UNION
ALL
|
SELECT
column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2 |
31.
|
UPDATE
|
UPDATE
table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value,... WHERE some_column=some_value |
32.
|
WHERE
|
SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM table_name WHERE column_name operator value |
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